Distribution Breeding: Primarily in boreal forests of Canada, from east-central Alberta east to the Maritime provinces, and in the United States from northern Minnesota to Maine and higher elevations of New England, New York and Pennsylvania; also breeds in the Appalachians as far south as northern Georgia. Winter: Primarily found throughout Colombia and Venezuela and along slopes of Andes of Ecuador, Peru, and northwestern Bolivia, but most commonly in the Colombian Andes. Small numbers found at mid-elevations from Costa Rica and Panama.

Breeding habitat

Mostly mature coniferous forest consisting of spruce, balsam fir, or hemlock; also mixed northern-hardwood forest with tall white pines or hemlocks. Will nest in Norway spruce plantations.

Conservation status

This warbler is of moderate conservation importance because of its relatively small total range, its preference for mature conifers, and its even more restricted winter range in the subtropical forests of the Andes and Middle America. At present overall populations appear to be stable, but declines have been noted in New England. Understanding the effect of forest fragmentation, and largescale silvicultural practices are important to long-term conservation planning, as is studying this species' sensitivity to habitat changes on its wintering grounds, where deforestation is rapidly taking place.

Description

Male: The brilliant orange throat, neck patch, and supercilliary contrasting with the black cheek and crown give this warbler a unique look. The large white wing patch is clearly visible, as are the black streaks on flanks.

Female: A dull version of the male, with pale orange on throat and supercilliary, grayish streaks on flanks, and a gray ear patch; two white wing bars are evident.

Juvenile: The upperparts are dull-gray with dusky, buffy streaks. The throat and breast are pale gray-brown, the dull underparts are lightly spotted with buffy marks on the breast and flanks. The eyebrow and sides of the neck are buffy, with a brown patch on the sides of the head.

Vocalizations

Song: Two distinct songs known. Accented-Ending songs, which contain one or two series of thin, high notes followed by an even higher upslurred note, zip zip zip zip zip zip zip zip titititi tseeeee, are usually given by unmated males or when in the vicinity of females. Unaccented-Ending songs consist of a series of doubled, very high notes, teetsa teetsa teetsa, not unlike the songs of other spruce-woods warblers.

Calls: Most often gives a single, rich chip or tsip. The most distinctive call is a double chip, not as hoarse and metallic as that of a Black-throated Green Warbler. Will give alarm notes given when disturbed at nest.

Foraging strategy

Primarily gleans insects from foliage on small branches, but also on twigs and larger branches, usually high in trees. They hover to pick prey from underside of vegetation, and occasionally sally for aerial insects. In spruce forests, males forage significantly higher than females: much male foraging is in treetops at singing levels, while females forage at height of nests. In predominately deciduous forest, foraging heights of two sexes similar.

Diet

Insectivorous; primarily caterpillars, although these may form only small part of the total captures. May contribute substantively to control of spruce budworm at endemic, but not at epidemic, levels.

Behavior and displays

• Males exhibit elaborate patterns of chasing fleeing males, especially early in the season, such as dropping several meters in whirling, aerial encounters.

• Flight sequences may include or be followed by slow, shallow, rowing flight, known as "moth flight." One male, chased by second male, performes this flight, combined with conspicuous tail-spread, anterior part of body at this time lower than posterior part and tail.

Courtship

• Male performs courtship displays, including vibrating wings and spreading tail and a "gliding" display.

• Copulation has been observed as early as the second day of nest building.

Nesting

Nest site: Prefers conifers, although deciduous second growth at high elevations that has replaced conifers has been used. Favored conifers include spruce, hemlocks, occasionally uses white pine. The nest is built well out from the trunk on a horizontal branch where it is concealed by foliage or lichen.

Height: Generally nest higher than most other species, but placement of nest can be extremely variable, with records from 3 feet (1 meter) to over 80 feet (25 meters).

Nest: Cup-shaped, densely constructed, and well-concealed in dense vegetation. Spider silk may be used to secure nests to site. Sides consist of twigs, bark, plant fibers, and rootlets, the inside is lined with lichens, mosses, fine grasses, hair, dead pine needles, and even occasionally such exotic substances as string willow cotton, horsehair and cattail down.

Eggs: 4-5 snowy to greenish white eggs, spotted or blotched with brown or reddish-brown. Small scrawls of brownish black often found.

Incubation period: Incubation by the female alone for 12-13 days. Female sits extremely tightly and is extremely hard to flush. Male may feed female on nest and may forage with female when she leaves the nest.

Nestling period: Nestlings are altricial (born naked or with a small amount of down, eyes closed, unable to move or feed themselves). Both parents feed young in nest and remove feces.

Fledgling period: Young are in close contact with parents for the first few days after leaving nest, do not move far, and do not call loudly or incessantly. Fledglings follow parents more often as their flying ability improves, begging as they go, sometimes literally "mobbing" parent, an activity to which parents increasingly respond in hostile manner. Later, the young join mixed foraging flocks with chickadees and other species.

Broods: No information.

Cowbird Parasitism: A known, but very uncommon, cowbird host.