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Winter: Most commonly found in Panama, western Colombia and northern Venezuela, but extends from the Yucatan peninsula south, barely reaching Suriname and northern Ecuador. Occurs on the Caribbean slope of Central America to Nicaragua, occurs on both slopes of Costa Rica and Panama reaching from Colombia east to northern Venezuela. Apparently overwinters in West Indies, uncommon in Puerto Rico, rare in Virgin Islands; has been recorded on the Galapagos Islands nearly 600 miles (1000 kilometers) west of mainland South America. Breeding habitat Primary habitats are almost always near standing water, especially in mature deciduous floodplain, riverine, swamp, and other wet lowland forests. Bottomland hardwoods, cypress swamps, and extensive willow thickets near lakes or ponds are suitable; swamps that are somewhat open with scattered dead stumps are preferred. Dense underbrush along streambanks is required. Conservation status This warbler of high conservation concern, because of its relatively small and patchy breeding range, its association with extensive bottomland forests, and its even more restricted winter range in tropical lowland forests. Populations have shown a steady long-term decline, with a loss of nearly 30% since 1966. Declines have been steepest in the Mississippi Valley and the coastal plains, especially since 1980. Understanding this species’ sensitivity to forest fragmentation, silvicultural practices, and other land uses will be important for conserving future populations. Description Male: A relatively large, short-tailed, and long-billed warbler with a brilliant golden-yellow head and breast. Eyes are large, dark, and prominent; bill is black. Underparts are yellow, fading to white undertail coverts. Wings are blue-gray, without wing bars, back is greenish with yellow tint, the blue-gray tail has large white patches. Female: Similar to adult male, but duller yellow with crown and nape showing a distinct greenish wash. Juvenile: Dull brownish-olive above and yellowish-olive below, paler on belly and under-tail coverts. Vocalizations Songs: A series of simple, loud, ringing zweet notes composed of a single syllable repeated 4-14 times, increasing in amplitude toward the end. Occasionally, males will sing double songs. A second, less frequent song is sung primarily during interactions with females and often in aerial Flight Displays. This extended song is longer and slightly more complex than primary song, beginning rapidly and slowing down at end: chwee-chwee-chwee-chwee, teer, teer, teer, or che-wee-chewee-chee-chee. Calls: Primary call note is a loud sharp tschip , similar to that of Louisiana Waterthrush. A second call note, usually used in interactions between sexes, is a quieter, thin tsip, often repeated several times in rapid succession. Foraging strategy Usually forages low around trunks and limbs of trees, rotten logs, and along the edges of pools. As a relatively slow-moving, thorough forager, most foraging maneuvers are gleans from leaves, twigs, and branches. In addition, hovering and fly-catching may be employed, also probing and peering into curled leaves or on bark substrates for spiders and caterpillars. Diet Primarily insectivorous, focusing on butterflies, moths, flies, beetles and spiders, occasionally taking mollusks and isopods. Behavior and displays Courtship Nesting Nest site: The
only eastern warbler that nests in cavities; the male selects the territory and nest site
by placing material in a cavity before the females arrive on breeding grounds. Natural
cavities in dead snags or branches of live trees, such as abandoned Downy Woodpecker
nests, are used, as are artificial cavities, such as standard nest boxes, milk cartons,
and Metamucil jars. Has been found using an abandoned open nest of another species. Nest
sites almost always occur over or near water. Height: Nest
cavity entrance hole is usually 6 feet (2 meters) or less above ground or water surface,
but can range to over 25 feet (8 meters) high. Nest: A
cup-shaped hollow of mosses, rootlets, twigs, and leaves, smoothly lined with fine
grasses, leaf stems, and feathers. Moss appears to be important in nest construction. Eggs: 3 –7
oval to short-oval eggs, with a smooth shell, creamy color, spotted and blotched boldly
and liberally with brown. Clutches in first half of season usually 5 eggs, later clutches
usually 4 eggs. Incubation period:
Nesting occurs from late April to late June, with a peak from mid-May to mid-June.
Incubation, by female, typically lasts 12–14 days. Nestling period:
Young are Altricial and naked with sparse downy feathers. Female broods young up to day
3–4, both parents tend to young. Fledgling period:
Young usually depart nest on day 10 after hatching, but can fledge 1 day earlier if
disturbed. Parents divide brood immediately after young fledge; each adult cares for
different young. Fledglings remain in close proximity to nest. If the female re-nests,
male cares for all fledglings in first brood. Broods: Second
broods occur regularly in the southern United States, infrequently in northern areas. Cowbird Parasitism: A frequent
host of the Brown-headed Cowbird. Notes |
States, from
eastern Texas, the Gulf Coast and most of Florida northward, becoming less common and
patchily distributed, to southeastern Minnesota and across southern Great Lakes region to
southern Ontario, western New York and northern New Jersey. Breeding range has expanded
northward, especially in the Mississippi Valley and vicinity, and nesting recently was
recorded in Rhode Island. 
